An intense and stationary cyclone around Antarctica caused part of the Brunt Ice Shelf to collapse into the sea; researchers believe increased global temperatures are at play.����

As climate change continues around the globe, dramatic scenes play out in Antarctica. Enormous sheets of ice fracture from the edge of the continent, crashing into the sea, the very image of global warming. The breaking and detachment of parts of ice shelves is a natural process, however, known as the glaciological cycle, and although individual events are not cause for concern, they are becoming more common.

A calving event is the process by which a large block of ice gets separated from an ice shelf or glacier and forms an iceberg. Ice shelves are platforms of floating ice that form where the Antarctic ice sheet meets the ocean. Large calving events from these remain highly unpredictable, but the process is typically associated with the glaciological cycle of the ice shelves as well as ocean dynamics. Atmospheric triggers of such events have been largely overlooked, but a team including researchers from Khalifa University identified changes in strong near-surface winds as the cause of one calving event in February 2021.

Dr. Diana Francis, Head of the Khalifa University Environmental and Geophysical Sciences Laboratory (ENGEOS), Dr. Ricardo Fonseca and Charfeddine Cherif, both from ENGEOS, investigated the atmospheric triggers of the calving event with Kyle Mattingly, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Oliver Marsh, British Antarctic Survey; and Stef Lhermitte, Delft University of Technology. Their results were published in.

Iceberg A-74 was calved from the Brunt Ice Shelf when strong near-surface winds associated with intense cyclones amplified the stress on a pre-existing rift in the ice shelf. After calving, the iceberg drifted westward at a speed of 700 meters per day, aided by strong offshore winds.

“Ice shelves around Antarctica make up 11 percent of Antarctica’s total area,” Dr. Francis said. “Over the last few decades, ice shelves have been retreating significantly or have collapsed altogether, and this land-ice loss has important implications for sea-level rise both locally and globally. In fact, ice shelves around Antarctica act as a buffer for the land ice behind, shielding it from ocean swells that may promote further loss of ice. When ice shelves weaken or collapse, ice loss accelerates, causing the sea levels to rise.”

However, they act as a brake on the flow of ice further inland. “In late February 2021, iceberg A-74 calved from the north side of the Brunt Ice Shelf,” Dr. Francis said. “Although most of the ice loss at this ice shelf has been attributed to the inflow of warm ocean water, the atmospheric conditions above Antarctica may have played a role in triggering this calving event. We know that the number and intensity of cyclones around Antarctica have increased over the last few decades as storm tracks shift towards the pole under enhanced greenhouse-gas concentrations. As the climate continues to warm, the intensity of more frequent cyclones is projected to increase.”

The week before the A-74 calving event saw a strong low-pressure system around the Brunt Ice Shelf, paired with an intense atmospheric river, an elongated band of clouds and high water-vapor content to the northeast of the center of a cyclone. Heavy snowfall fell over the ice shelf, with the researchers suggesting this may have contributed to its destabilization. Strong winds from the cyclone brought more warm air from the atmospheric river, which may have led to high waves hitting the front of the ice shelf. As the cyclone moved eastward and intensified, these forces increased until the calving event was triggered and iceberg A-74 fell into the sea.

This cyclone was deeper and more persistent than an ordinary cyclone, providing the ideal conditions to trigger a calving event. Warm and moist air and wet snow, combined with high ocean waves and swells, weakened the ice-shelf front. Then, strong offshore winds created a steep oceanward sea-surface slope forcing the ice shelf to calve along a pre-existing rift. It took just a few days for the ice shelf to weaken sufficiently for the ocean to force part of it to break.

“Recent studies have found a poleward shift and strengthening of the Southern Hemisphere’s winds, particularly during the summer season, and this has mainly been attributed to ozone depletion,” Dr. Francis said. “However, despite ozone recovery in recent years and the expected reduction in these trends, we’re seeing more frequent stormy periods around Antarctica in the warmer months. Global warming may be causing a continued poleward shift and intensification of the storm track, which means calving events may occur more often in a warming world, with atmospheric forcing playing an increasingly important role. It’s more important than ever that we develop models and data sets to assess and project Antarctic and Greenland ice-shelf dynamics and sea-level rise to better predict their evolution and dynamics.”

Jade Sterling
Science Writer
30 June 2022

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Khalifa University and the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi found that reduced human-caused air pollution during the Covid-19 lockdown was accompanied by increased surface-level winds, resulting in higher concentrations of dust and particulate matter.��

Research has shown that the global lockdowns seen during the start of the Covid-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the climate of several regions around the world by improving air quality. However, some regions actually saw increases in particulate matter in the atmosphere, as a result of a dustier than expected air.��

Dr. Diana Francis, Head of the Environmental and Geophysical Sciences Lab (ENGEOS), Dr. Ricardo Fonseca, Research Scientist, and Dr. Narendra Nelli, Postdoctoral Fellow, along with Oriol Teixido, Ruqaya Mohamed and Dr. Richard Perry from the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, investigated the increased dust activity over the Arabian Peninsula in combination with an increase in wind speed during the Covid-19 lockdown period in 2020. They found that while anthropogenic emissions were reduced, particulate matter concentrations from natural sources increased. Their results were published in Aeolian Research.��

The main winds driving dust emissions over the Arabian Peninsula are known as Shamal winds. They result from an East-West pressure dipole with a low over the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent and a high over northern Africa. During the lockdown, emissions reduction over the Indian subcontinent resulted in a deeper low pressure, which caused an increase in Shamal winds over the Arabian Peninsula leading to more dust emissions and higher concentrations of particulate matter over the UAE and surrounding countries.

The policies aimed at restricting mobility and promoting social distancing in an attempt to control the spread of the virus also impacted atmospheric and oceanic conditions through changes in human-caused emissions of pollutants. The global Covid-19 lockdowns resulted in a reduction of transportation and�� closure of industrial facilities closures during a two month period, which resulted in�� a seven percent drop in global carbon dioxide emissions from human activity.��

At the lockdown peak in April 2020, regions responsible for around 90 percent of global CO2 emissions were under some level of confinement. The resultant drop in emissions led to a reduction of the mean sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of 0.5 degrees Celsius in most coastal areas, with the SSTs in the north Indian Ocean decreasing by about 5 percent. The cleaner air also led to lower night-time land surface and air temperatures, with urban areas experiencing a more pronounced reduction than rural ones. During the daytime, on the other hand, the surface and air above were warmer due to less scattering and absorption of the incoming UV radiation from the sun.��

In more polluted environments, like in the four major cities of India (Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai), the impact was even more dramatic with the monthly mean temperature dropping by up to 3 degrees Celsius.��

As temperatures varied, near-surface wind speeds were also affected, as winds are a response to local-scale pressure and temperature gradients.��

In the UAE, reduced emissions led to a 40 percent decrease in the concentration of pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfuric dioxide, and carbon monoxide, compared to pre-lockdown levels. However, the particulate matter concentrations increased by up to 45 percent.��

“This was unexpected,” Dr. Francis said. “Published works reported a general reduction in particulate matter during the lockdown period, owing to lower emissions and changes in precipitation. However, some cities in Europe and China saw an increase in particulate matter in the atmosphere due to long-range transport of dust. In fact, in Morocco, the decrease in local emissions was offset by long-range transported aerosols from non-local emissions. It is important to understand the impact of the large-scale circulation on dust activity over the Arabian Peninsula and its effects on air quality throughout the lockdown period given that the region is one of the largest sources of mineral dust on Earth with mineral dust potentially accounting for more than 40 percent of the particulate matter levels.”

The researchers found that while there was a reduction in anthropogenic, or human caused, emissions in the Arabian Peninsula during the lockdown period, the particulate matter concentrations actually increased due to higher dust loadings. This was due to the increased Shamal winds that caused more dust aerosols to be picked up from dust sources in the Arabian Peninsula and then transported across the region and beyond.��

Compared to the four years prior to 2020, the dust loading in 2020 was higher over the majority of the eastern Arabian Peninsula, with hotspots in Kuwait, Iraq, and neighboring Saudi Arabia.” Dr. Francis said.

Dust aerosols are the main contributor to particulate matter concentrations and long-range transport of aerosols can explain aerosol increases in regions further from loading areas. The peaks in dust loading go hand in hand with the peaks in particulate matter, according to the researchers, as the increased dust emission was driven by high near-surface winds in response to the change in temperature and pressure gradients.

“While the reduction in the concentration of pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, has been widely reported, in the vast majority of published studies the particulate matter in several regions around the world also decreased,” Dr. Francis said.��

“Over the eastern Arabian Peninsula, however, it actually increased due to more active wind flow. This ��ݮ��Ƶ the complex nature of dust emissions and its relationship to anthropogenic and natural effects. Having less man-made pollutants does not necessarily mean having a cleaner environment. It is essential that dust aerosols and their feedback on the regional climate should be considered when establishing national and regional strategies for anthropogenic emission reduction.”

Jade Sterling
Science Writer
26 April 2022

The post Why Reduced Emissions over the Arabian Peninsula Did Not Make the Air Any Cleaner during the Covid-19 Lockdown in 2020 appeared first on Khalifa University.

The subdued transportation and industrial activity resulting from lockdowns during the pandemic generally reduced global pollution, but also created atmospheric conditions that whipped up unusually high levels of dust across the Arabian Peninsula.

Diana Francis, of Khalifa University of Science and Technology in the United Arab Emirates, was first alerted to this surprising effect while looking at research performed in early 2020 into changes in global emissions and pollution . That data showed clear evidence of reduced carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and oceans, but also indicated that the impact of the lockdowns was not universally positive from an air quality perspective. “I looked at the satellite imagery and saw very active dust emissions, especially over Iraq, Kuwait and northeast Saudi Arabia,” she says.��

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When governments introduced stay-home measures in early 2020 in response to the��, air pollution fell, in general, thanks to reduced traffic and the closure of industrial plants.

The UAE itself enjoyed a significant drop in����between February and April of that year, figures published by the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment showed, due to the scaled-down activities.

However, a new study by scientists in the Emirates has found that, against expectations, concentrations of tiny particulate matter in the air in eastern Arabia, including the UAE, increased during this time.

The study reports that from March to June 2020, the level of particulate matter (PM) in eastern Arabia was 30 per cent higher than the average seen from 2016 to 2019.

The increases in particulate matter were “indeed a surprising finding”, said the study’s first author, Dr Diana Francis, who heads the Environmental and Geophysical Sciences (ENGEOS) Laboratory at Khalifa University in Abu Dhabi.

The post Why Did ‘Particle Pollution’ Increase in UAE as Roads Emptied during Pandemic? appeared first on Khalifa University.

Scientists say appearance of dramatic red or orange snow is likely to become more frequent due to climate change

UAE researchers have revealed new details about how dust is travelling from the Sahara to the Alps to cause snowy pistes and glaciers to turn a dramatic red, pink or��.

The striking colouration, which happens when the dust causes the growth of microalgae, makes the snow melt more easily and is likely to become more frequent because of climate change.

��in Abu Dhabi reported that flows of air called atmospheric rivers are closely linked to the transport of dust from the Sahara to as far as northern Europe.

“In our study, we found an increasing trend in atmospheric rivers and associated severe dust transport episodes towards Europe,” said an author of the study, Dr Diana Francis, head of Khalifa University’s Environmental and Geophysical Sciences (ENGEOS) Laboratory.

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On the occasion of the 2021 International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies, Dr. Diana Francis was invited to speak at a webinar titled ‘Air Quality Beyond Borders: Exchanging Best Practices in Air Quality Management.’

By Dr. Diana Francis

I was delighted to take part in this event to echo the voice of academia and the scientific community on the question of air quality and its link to climate change, but also to highlight the efforts and new insights we have for society.

Academia and scientific research play an important role in advancing our understanding of air quality and climate change. It also helps policy makers establish science-based strategies and gives them a way to assess the efficiency of those guidelines and strategies.

Since the beginning, Khalifa University has been very involved in research and development on the UAE environment in general, but especially in air quality R&D.��

Masdar Institute was established to develop science-based knowledge on air pollution and to provide guidance and recommendations to governmental entities on the best ways to improve the air quality in the UAE. This has been achieved by investing in both observational and modelling activities which involves faculties, research staff and students.��

Externally, Khalifa University has partnered with the key players in this domain in the UAE with projects and ongoing collaborations with several entities such as the Ministry of Climate Change and the Environment (MOCCAE) and the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD), with whom we have the privilege to work hand-in-hand to improve the air quality in the UAE.

For instance, the Environmental and Geosciences Lab (ENGEOS) at Khalifa University, which I head, is responsible for providing air quality forecasts for the entire UAE daily to the MOCCAE in order to be shared with the public and serve as guidance for vulnerable groups. ENGEOS is also working very closely with the EAD to assess the impact of air pollution on the country’s weather patterns – an indirect impact of air pollution but rarely accounted for in strategic plans.

We have found many key insights on air quality through our work at ENGEOS. For example, we found that air quality is season dependent, with poorer air quality observed during the summer. We also found that the main contributor to the particulate matter levels observed in the UAE is natural aerosols – dust! This makes sense in a desert nation, but there’s also polluted dust from when natural dust mixes with pollutants as it travels over a polluted area to account for. This plays into air quality across the UAE depending on the level of emissions in the countries around the Arabian Gulf. Given the wind patterns here, polluted dust can be transported to the UAE by the Shamal winds. It’s clear that pollution and climate have a very complex relationship and that achieving clean air requires advanced techniques to untangle this interaction.

We know that increasing temperatures can lead to increased concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere because of the chemistry involved, but as temperatures rise, our consumption of electricity goes with it.��

Higher electricity consumption means more emissions, which means more pollution. Then, the increased level of pollutants in the atmosphere impacts the climate by warming the atmosphere as the particulate matter, especially black carbon, absorbs the sunlight.����

Scientific findings and knowledge are actually the backbone of any directive and viable policy. Khalifa University is committed to communicating the scientific findings in the domain of air quality in order to provide science-based knowledge to policy makers and help them elaborate the most appropriate strategies to improve the quality of the air we breathe. As a concrete example, knowing that some of the pollutants are being carried to the UAE from outside the country helps us to better design the relevant strategies to cut local emissions. The composition of the pollutants in the UAE, natural versus man-made ones, their spatio-temporal variability, and other factors are all key information when it comes to establishing sound policies and applying them.

There is no doubt that regional collaboration on air quality among the Gulf countries is crucial. Air knows no borders and whatever is emitted somewhere at a given time it will end up in the atmosphere somewhere else eventually. A positive action toward cutting emissions at one place can be easily cancelled by no action in the neighboring country. This is a crucial aspect to improving air quality, requiring long term coordination and engagement from all parties.

Dr. Diana Francis is a Senior Research Scientist and Head of the ENGEOS Lab at Khalifa University.��

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Saruq Al-Hadid Archaeological Site in Dubai Selected for First Study by ENGEOS Researchers to Apply Newly Developed Novel Method

Khalifa University has announced that researchers at its Environmental and Geophysical Sciences (ENGEOS) Lab have used satellite remote sensing observations to detect buried objects in already known archaeological sites and to identify potentially unexplored archaeological sites in the UAE by applying machine learning techniques to satellite data.

The novel method, which combines satellite data and machine learning, was developed at Khalifa University and can be applied to similar desert environments in the UAE and elsewhere. With this technology, the researchers were able to find a new potential area, unexplored yet by classic methods. This area is buried under the ground and is located on the opposite side of the current excavations.

Currently, the ENGEOS Lab at Khalifa University is investigating another archaeological site near Al Ain in the UAE.

Results from the ENGEOS research project led by Dr. Diana Francis, head of ENGEOS Lab, show that radar imaging allows direct detection and characterization of known as well as potentially novel buried archaeological sites. Researchers use satellite-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) at very high resolution that can detect features of the size of one meter that might be buried in the subsurface (less than two meters) under optimum conditions, that is, dry and bare soils such as the soil at Saruq Al Hadid site. Moreover, remotely sensed data are well-suited for supporting regional archaeology, as well as tracking of environmental factors that influence archaeology.

Based on the machine learning techniques and deep learning analyses conducted during this work, the ENGEOS Lab was able to find potential areas for further on-site investigation. The unsupervised artificial intelligence developed during this project was partially validated as it was able to find the areas already under excavation on the site. As a next step, the method developed during this first phase of the project will need to be validated through a field survey, which will help improve the accuracy of the results.��

This technology will not only help reduce the cost of archaeological exploration but will also effectively help archaeologists identify potential locations. At the same, it will create a model that will be more accurate with time, because it has the ability to learn and use this knowledge.

Dr. Arif Sultan Al Hammadi, Executive Vice-President, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, said: “Khalifa University researchers focus their efforts not only on science, engineering, technology and healthcare areas, but also are able to apply remote sensing to archaeology to explore UAE’s cultural and heritage sites. The ENGEOS Lab leads remote sensing at Khalifa University and has developed an archaeology application with the potential to be applied to similar desert environments, anywhere in the world.”

The Saruq Al-Hadid archaeological site was selected for the first study by the ENGEOS researchers. This site had earlier been investigated by a team of researchers from Dubai Municipality and the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Center (MBRSC) Lab, indicating the presence of buried settlements in the site used by ancient indigenous workers.��

Discovered in 2002, Saruq Al Hadid sits deep in the desert of the southern reaches of Dubai emirate and is believed to have been an iron-age metal ‘factory’ in operation around 1,300-800 BC. Even though relics from the Stone Age (10,000 BC) have also been discovered, the peak period of the site is believed to have been around 3,000 BC. Based on up to 12,000 artefacts found on the site, archaeologists believe it is one of the main centers of copper tool manufacturing in the region since the beginning of the Iron Age (1,000 BC).��

Dr. Francis said: “Remote sensing has been able to assist archaeological research in several ways in recent years, including detection of subsurface remains, monitoring of archaeological sites and monuments, and archeo-landscapes studies. Now, artificial intelligence and machine learning applied to remote sensing can provide additional support and invaluable guidance for on-site archaeological work.”

Clarence Michael
English Editor Specialist
27 July 2021

The post Researchers at Khalifa University’s ENGEOS Lab Use Remote Sensing and Machine Learning to Find Potential Unexplored Archeological Sites in UAE appeared first on Khalifa University.

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In the largest calving event from the Amery Ice Shelf since 1963, which occurred almost a decade earlier than expected, an iceberg 1,636 square kilometers in size with an estimated weight of 315 billion tons, broke away from its glacier in September 2019.

The iceberg continues to be monitored due to the threat that an iceberg this size could pose to shipping channels. However, attention is turning to the cause of this event as global warming and atmospheric changes could lead to more such calving events.

In a study recently published in, Dr. Diana Francis, Senior Research Scientist and Head of the Environmental and Geophysical Sciences (ENGEOS) lab from Khalifa University, along with Dr. Kyle Mattingly, Post-doctoral Associate, Rutgers University, Dr. Stef Lhermitte, Assistant Professor, Delft University of Technology; Dr. Marouane Temimi, Associate Professor, Stevens Institute; and Dr. Petra Heil, Senior Research Scientist, Australian Antarctic Division, describes the cause of this calving event, identifying cyclogenesis—the formation of cyclones—as a major factor. The team reported for the first time the formation of polar twin cyclones near Antarctica immediately prior to the event.

“Ice shelf instability is one of the main sources of uncertainty in Antarctica’s contribution to future sea level rise,” explained Dr. Francis. “Calving events play a crucial role in ice shelf weakening but remain unpredictable, and their governing processes are still poorly understood.”

Ice shelves are platforms of floating ice that form where the Antarctic ice sheet meets the ocean. The Amery Ice Shelf, which is one of the largest glacier drainage basins in the world, is located on the Eastern coast of Antarctica.

In December 2006, Australian scientists investigated enormous cracks that had been forming for over a decade at a rate of three to five metres a day in the Amery Ice Shelf. These fractures were feared to cause a 900-square-kilometer piece of the ice shelf to break off. The cracking was particularly concerning since the last recorded activity in this part of eastern Antarctica occurred over 50 years ago.

Although early studies predicted that the Amery Ice Shelf would not experience a major calving event until at least 2025, on 25 September 2019, iceberg D28 was calved.

“The rapid collapse of several Antarctic ice shelves observed recently and the near-instantaneous acceleration of land-ice discharge into the ocean that followed the collapse, demonstrate the sensitivity of the Antarctic cryosphere to recent warming,” explained Dr. Francis. “Large uncertainty remains regarding the response of ice shelves to the global rising temperatures and the resulting changes in the atmospheric circulation. That this D28 calving took us by surprise ��ݮ��Ƶ the need for an improved understanding of the underlying processes of calving events and the role of atmospheric forcing in ice shelf weakening.”

Around the world, rising seas threaten cities and infrastructure along the coast. Higher sea levels also mean that deadly and destructive storm surges push further inland than before, and high-tide flooding becomes more likely. Global mean sea level has risen about nine inches since 1880, mostly due to meltwater from glaciers and ice sheets as temperatures rise.

Although much attention focuses on the melting ice caps, calving is the fastest way by which ice contributes to sea level rise. While ice shelves themselves are floating ice and therefore already displacing water, they act as a brake on the flow of the ice further inland. As the ice shelves thin when pieces break off, this restrictive force decreases.

Despite the importance and the implications of ice shelf calving, this phenomenon remains unpredictable and poorly understood. The Khalifa University team focused on the impact of extreme cyclone activity during this largest calving event since 1963. They investigated the development of explosive cyclones and their impact on sea ice and land ice conditions in this area given that changes in cyclone tracks, numbers, and intensity may have significant impacts on Antarctic ice.

“Weather systems such as cyclones resulting from the larger-scale air and wind circulation are the main driver of the observed trends in sea ice variability,” explained Dr. Francis. “Furthermore, cyclones and their associated atmospheric rivers can induce sea ice melt, ice-shelf surface melt, and significant sea ice drift by virtue of their anomalous moisture and heat transport to high latitudes and the strong surface winds they carry. Severe storms can generate energetic waves in the Southern Ocean capable of penetrating hundreds of kilometers into the sea ice-covered ocean but this sea ice cover acts as a buffer, reducing the impact of storms on ice shelves.”

The number and intensity of cyclones around Antarctica over the last few decades have increased as the storm tracks shift towards the pole under enhanced greenhouse gas concentrations. As the climate continues to warm, the intensity of more frequent cyclones is projected to increase.

An extreme situation is the formation of explosive cyclones, which are deeper and longer-lasting compared to ordinary cyclones. Worse, they are found to be more intense in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere, with the Amery Basin, where the Amery Ice Shelf is located, standing out as one of the three main regions for explosive cyclogenesis around Antarctica.

As the cyclones are directed towards the south pole, they are blocked at the Antarctic coast by the ridges to the east. This results in stationary cyclones over the same region for longer, which has a pronounced impact on the sea ice and waves. As the extent to which the Antarctic sea ice extends reduces and the number and severity of atmospheric events increases, this may result in even more impact on ice shelves from extreme cyclones.

The KU research team also noted the formation of twin cyclones, where mutually-interacting cyclones have twice the impact as a single cyclone.

“To our knowledge, the formation of explosively developing twin cyclones has only been observed and studied in the tropics, the mid-latitudes, and in the Arctic,” explained Dr. Francis. “But we reported the formation of polar twin cyclones near Antarctica during two consecutive events just days apart in September 2019.”

The researchers found that an extended period of strong cyclonic activity in September 2019 resulted in an exceptional period of strong easterly/north-easterly winds over the western side of the Amery Ice Shelf. This exceptional wind stress on the ice shelf generated strong waves in the region in front of it, where warm and moist air masses at the ice shelf front may have contributed to a decrease in sea ice concentration. The team found that the winds during the first twin cyclone event were exceptionally unusual compared to the record, while the winds during the second were strong but not extreme. This suggests that the first event had an important role in preconditioning the ice shelf front for breakoff, while the offshore winds in the second event triggered the calving by pushing the section of ice out from the shelf.

“We found that the cyclones had a large impact on the ice conditions because they were stationary,” explained Dr. Francis. “They subjected the ice to sustained stress and strain, weakening and exposing the ice shelf before strong winds pushed part of the shelf out to sea.”

The team asserts that important changes in the atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere need to be further investigated, with an urgent need to assess the impact of cyclones on the area.

“If extreme polar cyclones are to form and more frequently reach ice shelves due to climate change, their destructive effect may have important consequences,” explained Dr. Francis. “This needs to be accounted for in models used for sea level projections.”

Jade Sterling
Science Writer
9 December 2020

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